Investigating geomorphic change using a structure from motion elevation model created from historical aerial imagery: A case study in northern Lake Michigan, USA

South Manitou Island, part of Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore in northern Lake Michigan, is a post-glacial lacustrine landscape with substantial geomorphic changes including landslides, shoreline and bluff retreat, and sand dune movement. These changes involve interrelated processes, and are influenced to different extents by lake level, climate change, and land use patterns, among other factors. The utility of DEM of Difference (DoD) and other terrain analyses were investigated as a means of understanding interrelated geomorphologic changes and processes across multiple decades and at multiple scales. A 1m DEM was developed from 1955 historical aerial imagery using Structure from Motion Multi-View Stereo (SfM-MVS) and compared to a 2016 lidar-based DEM to quantify change. Landslides, shoreline erosion, bluff retreat, and sand dune movement were investigated throughout South Manitou Island. While the DoD indicates net loss or gain, interpretation of change must take into consideration the SfM-MVS source of the historical DEM. In the case of landslides, where additional understanding may be gleaned through review of the timing of lake high- and lowstands together with DoD values. Landscape-scale findings quantified cumulative feedbacks between interrelated processes. These findings could be upscaled to assess changes across the entire park, informing future change investigations and land management decisions.